python wsgi教程3——响应

将上一个例子的返回:


return [response_body]

改为:


return response_body

再次运行会发现速度变慢了。这是因此服务器对发送过来的字符串是按单个字节进行迭代的,所以最好对返回的字符串用一个可迭代对象包装一下。


如果返回的这个可迭代对象生成多个字符串,那么正文的长度即为这些字符串长度的总和。


接下来看一个例子:

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#! /usr/bin/env python

from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server

def application(environ, start_response):

response_body = ['%s: %s' % (key, value)
for key, value in sorted(environ.items())]
response_body = '\n'.join(response_body)

# Response_body has now more than one string
response_body = ['The Beggining\n',
'*' * 30 + '\n',
response_body,
'\n' + '*' * 30 ,
'\nThe End']

# So the content-lenght is the sum of all string's lengths
content_length = 0
for s in response_body:
content_length += len(s)

status = '200 OK'
response_headers = [('Content-Type', 'text/plain'),
('Content-Length', str(content_length))]
start_response(status, response_headers)

return response_body

httpd = make_server('localhost', 8051, application)
httpd.handle_request()

python wsgi教程2——环境变量

环境变量字典包含了类似于CGI的变量,它是在每次请求时被服务器填充。

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#! /usr/bin/env python

# Our tutorial's WSGI server
from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server

def application(environ, start_response):

# Sorting and stringifying the environment key, value pairs
response_body = ['%s: %s' % (key, value)
for key, value in sorted(environ.items())]
response_body = '\n'.join(response_body)

status = '200 OK'
response_headers = [('Content-Type', 'text/plain'),
('Content-Length', str(len(response_body)))]
start_response(status, response_headers)

return [response_body]

# Instantiate the WSGI server.
# It will receive the request, pass it to the application
# and send the application's response to the client
httpd = make_server(
'localhost', # The host name.
8051, # A port number where to wait for the request.
application # Our application object name, in this case a function.
)

# Wait for a single request, serve it and quit.
httpd.handle_request()

执行该脚本,然后在浏览器中打开http://localhost:8051/ 查看效果。

这个例子是将环境变量字典的值全部输出。

python wsgi教程1——介绍

WSGI(Web Server Gateway Interface)并不是一个服务器,而是一个协议。最开始是用Python写的,现在很多语言都有了对应的实现。详细内容可以看这里: http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333/

WSGI应用程序接口是一个可调用的对象。它必须接收两个固定的参数:一个包含了类似CGI变量的字典;一个可调用的函数用于返回HTTP状态代码和数据头。

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# This is our application object. It could have any name,
# except when using mod_wsgi where it must be "application"
def application( # It accepts two arguments:
# environ points to a dictionary containing CGI like environment variables
# which is filled by the server for each received request from the client
environ,
# start_response is a callback function supplied by the server
# which will be used to send the HTTP status and headers to the server
start_response):

# build the response body possibly using the environ dictionary
response_body = 'The request method was %s' % environ['REQUEST_METHOD']

# HTTP response code and message
status = '200 OK'

# These are HTTP headers expected by the client.
# They must be wrapped as a list of tupled pairs:
# [(Header name, Header value)].
response_headers = [('Content-Type', 'text/plain'),
('Content-Length', str(len(response_body)))]

# Send them to the server using the supplied function
start_response(status, response_headers)

# Return the response body.
# Notice it is wrapped in a list although it could be any iterable.
return [response_body]

以上是一个应用程序的基本框架。由于没有服务器,因此这段代码目前还不能运行。

python cgi教程6——Session

Session是位于服务器端的Cookie。它保存在服务器上的文件或者数据库中。每条session是由session id(SID)进行标识。


基于Cookie的SID


Cookie可以长久胡保存SID,直到Cookie过期。用这种方式更快更安全。但是得客户端的浏览器支持Cookie才行。

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#!/usr/bin/env python

import sha, time, Cookie, os

cookie = Cookie.SimpleCookie()
string_cookie = os.environ.get('HTTP_COOKIE')

# If new session
if not string_cookie:
# The sid will be a hash of the server time
sid = sha.new(repr(time.time())).hexdigest()
# Set the sid in the cookie
cookie['sid'] = sid
# Will expire in a year
cookie['sid']['expires'] = 12 * 30 * 24 * 60 * 60
# If already existent session
else:
cookie.load(string_cookie)
sid = cookie['sid'].value

print cookie
print 'Content-Type: text/html\n'
print '<html><body>'

if string_cookie:
print '<p>Already existent session</p>'
else:
print '<p>New session</p>'

print '<p>SID =', sid, '</p>'
print '</body></html>'

我们对服务器的时间进行哈希生成一个唯一的Session ID。


基于Query String的SID



#!/usr/bin/env python

import sha, time, cgi, os

sid = cgi.FieldStorage().getfirst(‘sid’)

if sid: # If session exists
message = ‘Already existent session’
else: # New session
# The sid will be a hash of the server time
sid = sha.new(repr(time.time())).hexdigest()
message = ‘New session’

qs = ‘sid=’ + sid

print “””\
Content-Type: text/html\n

%s


SID = %s


reload



“”” % (message, sid, sid)

这是将sid直接在url中传递。


使用隐藏域



#!/usr/bin/env python

import sha, time, cgi, os

sid = cgi.FieldStorage().getfirst(‘sid’)

if sid: # If session exists
message = ‘Already existent session’
else: # New session
# The sid will be a hash of the server time
sid = sha.new(repr(time.time())).hexdigest()
message = ‘New session’

qs = ‘sid=’ + sid

print “””\
Content-Type: text/html\n

%s


SID = %s







“”” % (message, sid, sid)

这是将sid放在表单中作为隐藏字段提交。


shelve模块


光有session id是不够的,还需要将内容保存到文件或者数据库中。这里可以使用shelve模块保存到文件。

session = shelve.open('/tmp/.session/sess_' + sid, writeback=True)

它打开文件并返回一个类似于字典的对象。

session['lastvisit'] = repr(time.time())

设置session的值。

lastvisit = session.get('lastvisit')

读取刚刚设置的值。

session.close()

最后操作完成之后要记得关闭文件。


Cookie和Shelve


接下来用一个例子展示下Cookie和Shelve共同使用。

#!/usr/bin/env python
import sha, time, Cookie, os, shelve

cookie = Cookie.SimpleCookie()
string_cookie = os.environ.get('HTTP_COOKIE')

if not string_cookie:
   sid = sha.new(repr(time.time())).hexdigest()
   cookie['sid'] = sid
   message = 'New session'
else:
   cookie.load(string_cookie)
   sid = cookie['sid'].value
cookie['sid']['expires'] = 12 * 30 * 24 * 60 * 60

# The shelve module will persist the session data
# and expose it as a dictionary
session_dir = os.environ['DOCUMENT_ROOT'] + '/tmp/.session'
session = shelve.open(session_dir + '/sess_' + sid, writeback=True)

# Retrieve last visit time from the session
lastvisit = session.get('lastvisit')
if lastvisit:
   message = 'Welcome back. Your last visit was at ' + \
      time.asctime(time.gmtime(float(lastvisit)))
# Save the current time in the session
session['lastvisit'] = repr(time.time())

print """\
%s
Content-Type: text/html\n
<html><body>
<p>%s</p>
<p>SID = %s</p>
</body></html>
""" % (cookie, message, sid)

python cgi教程5——Cookie

设置Cookie

有两个与cookie相关的操作,设置cookie和读取cookie。


以下例子展示了cookie的设置。

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#!/usr/bin/env python
import time

# This is the message that contains the cookie
# and will be sent in the HTTP header to the client
print 'Set-Cookie: lastvisit=' + str(time.time());

# To save one line of code
# we replaced the print command with a '\n'
print 'Content-Type: text/html\n'
# End of HTTP header

print '<html><body>'
print 'Server time is', time.asctime(time.localtime())
print '</body></html>'

这是在数据头中使用Set-Cookie进行的操作。


检索Cookie


浏览器返回来的cookie存放于os.environ字典中,对应的字段名为’HTTP_COOKIE’。以下是一个例子:

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#!/usr/bin/env python
import Cookie, os, time

cookie = Cookie.SimpleCookie()
cookie['lastvisit'] = str(time.time())

print cookie
print 'Content-Type: text/html\n'

print '<html><body>'
print '<p>Server time is', time.asctime(time.localtime()), '</p>'

# The returned cookie is available in the os.environ dictionary
cookie_string = os.environ.get('HTTP_COOKIE')

# The first time the page is run there will be no cookies
if not cookie_string:
print '<p>First visit or cookies disabled</p>'

else: # Run the page twice to retrieve the cookie
print '<p>The returned cookie string was "' + cookie_string + '"</p>'

# load() parses the cookie string
cookie.load(cookie_string)
# Use the value attribute of the cookie to get it
lastvisit = float(cookie['lastvisit'].value)

print '<p>Your last visit was at',
print time.asctime(time.localtime(lastvisit)), '</p>'

print '</body></html>'

使用SimpleCookie对象的load()方法对字符串进行解析。

python cgi教程4——执行Shell命令

可以使用subprocess.Popen或者os.popen4让cgi执行shell命令。

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#!/usr/bin/python
import cgitb; cgitb.enable()

# The subprocess module is new in 2.4
import os, urllib, subprocess as sub

# Retrieve the command from the query string
# and unencode the escaped %xx chars
str_command = urllib.unquote(os.environ['QUERY_STRING'])

p = sub.Popen(['/bin/bash', '-c', str_command],
stdout=sub.PIPE, stderr=sub.STDOUT)
output = urllib.unquote(p.stdout.read())

print """\
Content-Type: text/html\n
<html><body>
<pre>
$ %s
%s
</pre>
</body></html>
""" % (str_command, output)

注意:这只是一个例子,在生产环境中这么使用是非常的不安全。

可以使用Cookies和Session对用户进行认证以提高安全性。

python cgi教程3——表单

cgi模块中有一个FieldStorage类可用于表单处理。


单一字段名


有一个HTML表单如下:

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<html><body>
<form method="get" action="/cgi-bin/form1.py">
Name: <input type="text" name="name">
<input type="submit" value="Submit">
</form>
</body></html>

form1.py内容为:

#!/usr/bin/env python
import cgi
form = cgi.FieldStorage() # instantiate only once!
name = form.getfirst('name', 'empty')

# Avoid script injection escaping the user input
name = cgi.escape(name)

print """\
Content-Type: text/html\n
<html><body>
<p>The submitted name was "%s"</p>
</body></html>
""" % name

getfirst方法获取指定字段的第一个值,如果该字段不存在则为空。将表单的方法改为post它同样适用。


为了避免用户提交危险的内容,可以使用cgi.escape()方法对内容进行转换。


多字段名


对于多个字段具有相同名字的可以使用getlist()方法,它返回一个列表包含了这些值。

<html><body>
<form method="post" action="/cgi-bin/form2.py">
Red<input type="checkbox" name="color" value="red">
Green<input type="checkbox" name="color" value="green">
<input type="submit" value="Submit">
</form>
</body></html>

form2.py内容如下:

#!/usr/bin/env python
import cgi
form = cgi.FieldStorage()

# getlist() returns a list containing the
# values of the fields with the given name
colors = form.getlist('color')

print "Content-Type: text/html\n"
print '<html><body>'
print 'The colors list:', colors
for color in colors:
   print '<p>', cgi.escape(color), '</p>'
print '</body></html>'

文件上传

<html><body>
<form enctype="multipart/form-data" action="/cgi-bin/form3.py" method="post">
<p>File: <input type="file" name="file"></p>
<p><input type="submit" value="Upload"></p>
</form>
</body></html>

getfirst()getlist()都只能获取文件的内容。想获取文件名需要使用FieldStorage


form3.py内容如下:

#!/usr/bin/env python
import cgi, os
import cgitb; cgitb.enable()

try: # Windows needs stdio set for binary mode.
    import msvcrt
    msvcrt.setmode (0, os.O_BINARY) # stdin  = 0
    msvcrt.setmode (1, os.O_BINARY) # stdout = 1
except ImportError:
    pass

form = cgi.FieldStorage()

# A nested FieldStorage instance holds the file
fileitem = form['file']

# Test if the file was uploaded
if fileitem.filename:

   # strip leading path from file name to avoid directory traversal attacks
   fn = os.path.basename(fileitem.filename)
   open('files/' + fn, 'wb').write(fileitem.file.read())
   message = 'The file "' + fn + '" was uploaded successfully'

else:
   message = 'No file was uploaded'

print """\
Content-Type: text/html\n
<html><body>
<p>%s</p>
</body></html>
""" % (message,)

大文件上传

在处理大文件时如果内存不足,可以使用生成器将文件分成小片。

可将之前的脚本改写如下:

#!/usr/bin/env python
import cgi, os
import cgitb; cgitb.enable()

try: # Windows needs stdio set for binary mode.
    import msvcrt
    msvcrt.setmode (0, os.O_BINARY) # stdin  = 0
    msvcrt.setmode (1, os.O_BINARY) # stdout = 1
except ImportError:
    pass

form = cgi.FieldStorage()

# Generator to buffer file chunks
def fbuffer(f, chunk_size=10000):
   while True:
      chunk = f.read(chunk_size)
      if not chunk: break
      yield chunk

# A nested FieldStorage instance holds the file
fileitem = form['file']

# Test if the file was uploaded
if fileitem.filename:

   # strip leading path from file name to avoid directory traversal attacks
   fn = os.path.basename(fileitem.filename)
   f = open('files/' + fn, 'wb', 10000)

   # Read the file in chunks
   for chunk in fbuffer(fileitem.file):
      f.write(chunk)
   f.close()
   message = 'The file "' + fn + '" was uploaded successfully'

else:
   message = 'No file was uploaded'

print """\
Content-Type: text/html\n
<html><body>
<p>%s</p>
</body></html>
""" % (message,)

python cgi教程2——调试

有时数据头出错是很难定位的,除非有权限访问服务器日志。


好在Python有cgitb模块,可以将异常的堆栈信息放在正文中,作为HTML输出。


以下是一个简单的例子:

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#!/usr/bin/env python
print "Content-Type: text/html\n"
import cgitb; cgitb.enable()
print 1/0

也可以使用handler()方法进行捕获异常处理。

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#!/usr/bin/env python
print "Content-Type: text/html"
print
import cgitb
try:
f = open('non-existent-file.txt', 'r')
except:
cgitb.handler()

还有一种更直接的方法,将数据头设为”text/plain”并把标准错误输出设置到标准输出。

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print "Content-Type: text/plain"
print
import sys
sys.stderr = sys.stdout
f = open('non-existent-file.txt', 'r')

注意:这些只是用于在开发阶段,在生产环境中要把它禁用。以免异常信息被攻击者利用。

python cgi教程1——Hello World

简介

CGI(Common Gateway Interface),通用网关接口的简称。它是客户端和服务器程序进行数据传输的一种标准。


一个CGI程序可以使用任何语言编写,通常它是放在Web服务器(如Apache)目录下的cgi-bin目录里。


实例


接下来看一个简单的例子。

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#!/usr/bin/env python
print "Content-Type: text/html"
print
print """\
<html>
<body>
<h2>Hello World!</h2>
</body>
</html>
"""

脚本程序的第一行指定了python解释器的路径。在你系统中它也可能为:

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#!/usr/bin/python
#!/usr/bin/python2
#!c:\Python26\python.exe
#!c:\Python27\python.exe
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print "Content-Type: text/html"
print

脚本必须输出一个HTTP的头,它由一条或者多条消息构成,然后再一个空行。空行是必需的,它意味着头的结束。

这里我们想要把输出作为HTML解释,因此指定Content-Type为 text/html。


这里也可以写成:

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print "Content-Type: text/html\n"

保存以上脚本,并添加执行权限。然后在浏览器中访问执行该脚本,应该可以看到”Hello World”这几个字。

[翻译]Ruby GTK教程8——贪吃蛇

贪吃蛇

在这部分的Ruby GTK编程教程中我们将创建一个贪吃蛇游戏。


贪吃蛇是一个比较老的经典电子游戏。它第一次创建是在70年代后期。之后被移植到PC上。在这个游戏中玩家控制蛇,目标是尽可能多的吃掉苹果。蛇每吃掉一个苹果,身体就会变长。必须避免蛇撞到墙或者自己的身体。


开发


蛇的每块关节的大小为10像素。使用方向键控制蛇。初始,蛇有三块关节。游戏立即开始。当游戏结束后在窗口中央显示”Game Over”。


board.rb


WIDTH = 300
HEIGHT = 270
DOT_SIZE = 10
ALL_DOTS = WIDTH HEIGHT / (DOT_SIZE DOT_SIZE)
RAND_POS = 26

$x = [0] ALL_DOTS
$y = [0]
ALL_DOTS

class Board < Gtk::DrawingArea

def initialize
super

modify_bg Gtk::STATE_NORMAL, Gdk::Color.new(0, 0, 0)

signal_connect “expose-event” do
on_expose
end

init_game
end

def on_timer

if @inGame
check_apple
check_collision
move
queue_draw
return true
else
return false
end
end

def init_game

@left = false
@right = true
@up = false
@down = false
@inGame = true
@dots = 3

for i in (0..@dots)
$x[i] = 50 - i 10
$y[i] = 50
end

begin
@dot = Cairo::ImageSurface.from_png “dot.png”
@head = Cairo::ImageSurface.from_png “head.png”
@apple = Cairo::ImageSurface.from_png “apple.png”
rescue Exception => e
puts “cannot load images”
exit
end

locate_apple
GLib::Timeout.add(100) { on_timer }

end


def on_expose

cr = window.create_cairo_context

if @inGame
draw_objects cr
else
game_over cr
end
end

def draw_objects cr

cr.set_source_rgb 0, 0, 0
cr.paint

cr.set_source @apple, @apple_x, @apple_y
cr.paint

for z in (0..@dots)
if z == 0
cr.set_source @head, $x[z], $y[z]
cr.paint
else
cr.set_source @dot, $x[z], $y[z]
cr.paint
end
end
end

def game_over cr

w = allocation.width / 2
h = allocation.height / 2

cr.set_font_size 15
te = cr.text_extents “Game Over”

cr.set_source_rgb 65535, 65535, 65535

cr.move_to w - te.width/2, h
cr.show_text “Game Over”

end


def check_apple

if $x[0] == @apple_x and $y[0] == @apple_y
@dots = @dots + 1
locate_apple
end
end

def move

z = @dots

while z > 0
$x[z] = $x[(z - 1)]
$y[z] = $y[(z - 1)]
z = z - 1
end

if @left
$x[0] -= DOT_SIZE
end

if @right
$x[0] += DOT_SIZE
end

if @up
$y[0] -= DOT_SIZE
end

if @down
$y[0] += DOT_SIZE
end

end

def check_collision

z = @dots

while z > 0
if z > 4 and $x[0] == $x[z] and $y[0] == $y[z]
@inGame = false
end
z = z - 1
end

if $y[0] > HEIGHT - DOT_SIZE
@inGame = false
end

if $y[0] < 0
@inGame = false
end

if $x[0] > WIDTH - DOT_SIZE
@inGame = false
end

if $x[0] < 0
@inGame = false
end

end

def locate_apple

r = rand(RAND_POS)
@apple_x = r
DOT_SIZE
r = rand(RAND_POS)
@apple_y = r DOT_SIZE
end

def on_key_down event

key = event.keyval

if key == Gdk::Keyval::GDK_Left and not @right
@left = true
@up = false
@down = false
end

if key == Gdk::Keyval::GDK_Right and not @left
@right = true
@up = false
@down = false
end

if key == Gdk::Keyval::GDK_Up and not @down
@up = true
@right = false
@left = false
end

if key == Gdk::Keyval::GDK_Down and not @up
@down = true
@right = false
@left = false
end
end
end

首先我们定义一些全局变量。


WIDTH和HEIGHT常量决定了甲板的大小。DOT_SIZE是苹果和蛇的每个点的大小。ALL_DOTS常量定义了甲板可能包含的最大的点数量。RAND_POS常量用于计算苹果的随机位置。DELAY常量决定游戏速度。


$x = [0]  ALL_DOTS
$y = [0] ALL_DOTS

这两个数组存储了蛇所有关节的x、y坐标。


init_game方法初始化变量、加载图片和启动timeout函数。


if @inGame
draw_objects cr
else
game_over cr
end

on_expose_method方法里我们检查@inGame变量。如果为true,绘制苹果和蛇。否则显示”Game over”文字。


def draw_objects cr

cr.set_source_rgb 0, 0, 0
cr.paint

cr.set_source @apple, @apple_x, @apple_y
cr.paint

for z in (0..@dots)
if z == 0
cr.set_source @head, $x[z], $y[z]
cr.paint
else
cr.set_source @dot, $x[z], $y[z]
cr.paint
end
end
end

draw_objects方法绘制苹果和蛇。蛇的头部用红色的圆表示。


def check_apple

if $x[0] == @apple_x and $y[0] == @apple_y
@dots = @dots + 1
locate_apple
end
end

check_apple方法查检蛇是否碰到苹果,如果是则增加蛇的关节并调用locate_apple方法随机放置一个新的苹果。


move方法是游戏的关键算法。为了理解它,先看一下蛇是如何移动的。控制蛇头,可以使用方向键改变它的方向。其余的关节朝该方向前进。第二个关节移到到第一关节的位置,第三个关节到第二个等等。


while z > 0
$x[z] = $x[(z - 1)]
$y[z] = $y[(z - 1)]
z = z - 1
end

这些代码将关节按照链状前进。


if @left
$x[0] -= DOT_SIZE
end

头部向左移动。


check_collision方法中,我们检查蛇是否撞到了自己或者墙。


while z > 0
if z > 4 and $x[0] == $x[z] and $y[0] == $y[z]
@inGame = false
end
z = z - 1
end

如果蛇撞到了自己,游戏结束。


if $y[0] > HEIGHT - DOT_SIZE
@inGame = false
end

如果蛇撞到底部,游戏结束。


localte_apple方法在甲板上随机定位一个苹果。


r = rand(RAND_POS)

获取0到RAND_POS-1的一个随机数。


@apple_x = r  DOT_SIZE

@apple_y = r * DOT_SIZE

这几行设置了苹果的x、y坐标。


if @inGame
check_apple
check_collision
move
queue_draw
return true
else
return false
end

第140ms调用一次on_timer方法。如果游戏运行则调用三个组成游戏逻辑的方法。否则返回false,停止定时事件。


在Board类的on_key_down方法中我们判断按下的键。


if key == Gdk::Keyval::GDK_Left and not @right
@left = true
@up = false
@down = false
end

如果我们按的是左方向键,我们设置left变量为true。这个变量用于move方法改变蛇的坐标。同样注意,当蛇是朝右时,我们不能立即朝左。


nibbles.rb


#!/usr/bin/ruby

# ZetCode Ruby GTK tutorial
#
# This is a simple nibbles game
# clone
#
# author: jan bodnar
# website: www.zetcode.com
# last modified: June 2009

require ‘gtk2’
require ‘board’

class RubyApp > Gtk::Window
def initialize
super

set_title “Nibbles”
signal_connect “destroy” do
Gtk.main_quit
end

@board = Board.new
signal_connect “key-press-event” do |w, e|
on_key_down(w, e)
end

add @board

set_default_size 300, 270
set_window_position Gtk::Window::POS_CENTER
show_all
end

def on_key_down widget, event

key = event.keyval
@board.on_key_down event
end
end

Gtk.init
window = RubyApp.new
Gtk.main

在这个类我们启动了贪吃游戏。


def on_key_down widget, event

key = event.keyval
@board.on_key_down event
end

在这个类的捕获按键事件然后委托Board类的on_key_down method方法进行处理。


image

图片:贪吃蛇


这是使用Ruby语言和GTK库编写的贪吃蛇计算机游戏。




原文地址: http://zetcode.com/gui/rubygtk/nibbles/

翻译:龙昌 admin@longchangjin.cn